New Memory boosters how it works

 Here I am going to mention some natural memory boosters and also some drugs that are recommended for increasing the activity of the brain so that we do not suffer from forgetting things as we go on in our lives

Natural memory boosting remedies

•        Maintain normal blood glucose level

Different researches  had revealed that when blood glucose levels are above normal this causes many dangerous effects on your various body organs also decreased blood glucose levels lead to deterioration of cells due to lack of power

•        Give your body the essential vitamins it needs

We must eat all the necessary supplements in our diet so that our body gets all the essential vitamins and co-factors which are essential for normal biochemical reactions .In this topic I advise everybody to take fresh vegetables and fruits in their meals as the uncooked food still have all of its important components not damaged

•        Try to reduce stress

Stress nowadays is being so dangerous to our health as we all suffer from stress. But new researches showed that stress decreases the ability of the brain to concentrate and so decrease it’s memorizing abilities

•        Don’t smoke

Smoking had shown to be so dangerous to the brain cells thus reducing your smoking rate or even stop smoking at all will give high benefits concerning your concentration and memory

•        Eating fish

Different kinds of fish contains omega 3 fatty acids which are believed to be so beneficial toward the function and the integrity of brain cells . So people who eat fish frequently are not susceptible to the problems of memory loss or decrease in memory abilities

•        Using a memory enhancing game on a computer

Training your brain will bring a great benefit for your brain skills .a medical research had proven that when a person trains his brain to memorize objects his brain started to gain more intelligence and memory skills

•        Daily body exercises

These exercises enhance normal circulation both peripherally and centrally thus leading to normal blood flow to the brain cells so this will lead to having neurons fully supported with oxygen and the main supplements it needs so working efficiently

•        Some natural extracts to be administered

Ginseng, Ginkgo biloba and gotu kola herbs extracts. These extracts shown to enhance the functions and the integrity of brain cells by increasing the blood flow to the brain cells so that maintaining normal functions of the brain from which the memory abilities of the brain.

Primrose and Cod liver oil shown to be of great help to the brain cells as they contain omega 3 fatty acid and other essential fatty acids that support the neurons by entering into many biochemical reactions involved in the impulse transmission and the manufacturing of different neurotransmitters Finally I would like to say that having a healthy lifestyle of eating , sleeping and having exercises at normal rates will give you a better health specially when you go old and feel that you are losing your health.

Cold sores

 Cold sores are those lesions and blisters that usually appear around the lips and they are called cold sores as they often come after common cold and influenza infections but they have no relation with the common cold itself.

Cause of cold sores

Its cause by a virus called Herpes simplex virus this virus has two types one that cause these blisters around the lips and this is called Herpes Labialis and the other cause blisters and rash of the genitals and is called genital Herpes.

This virus is transmuted from one person to another by direst contact to the saliva of an infected person this can be when sharing infected eating tools or by kissing or getting in direct contact with an infected person.

Symptoms and signs of Cold sores

The most obvious symptom of cold sore comes from its naming, the sores or blisters that appear around the lips . It takes the shape of red swollen blister surrounded  by redness in the skin this blisters may become filled with white fluid and all this doesn't last for more than three to four weeks.

The other symptoms include sore throat, fever, swollen glands in your neck.

Diagnosis of cold sores

Its easily diagnosed by examination of the blisters around the lips and its so clear due to its limited body area and it affect also the other symptoms are so clear so the whole case shows clearly that its cold sore or Herpes simplex infection.

Treatment of cold sores

As we know that as it’s a viral infection so it has no curing treatment but all what we can do is the symptomatic treatment to relief the painful blisters by using creams and ointments and other topical preparation also relieving the sore throat by using lozenges and if there is  fever we must using analgesics to cool down the high body temperature . But we must then leave the body to combat the virus by itself and its specialized defense mechanisms in order to get rid of the virus.

Prevention of the infection by Herpes Simplex

This can be dine by avoiding the use of others eating utensils , drinking cups , razors and the other tools that can be shared among different persons. Also avoid getting in contact with infected patients either by kissing or touching.

Finally I must concentrate on one point that ones you have got cold sores you sill not get rid of it completely but you can avoid what triggers the cold sores as stress and flu also try to use lip balm and sunscreen lotions as the exposure to sunlight can trigger your cold sore . Avoid the use of towels ,razors and other tools that someone with cold sore had used. Try not to touch the blisters and the regions you have the sores in as you can transmit the virus to another parts of your body as the genitals for example.

These are the easiest methods to deal with cold sores without the need of prescription or even seeing a doctor but if the disease is more complicated you must see a doctor for more advice.

Hand, Foot and Mouth disease

 This is a disease that most commonly appear in children and its name is due to the appearance of many lessons inside the mouth and on the hand palm and the foot sole. It is cause by a viral infection with a intestinal virus from the picornaviridae family

It is usually present and spread among young children and infants as this type of viruses can transmit among children through direct contact with  saliva, feces or mucus of the infected child. It can also affect adults but in  rare cases.

Symptoms of HFMD

Symptoms start to appear after an incubation period of three to seven days after which symptoms  appear in the form  of headache , fever and fatigue after which  sore throat and lessons start to appear  in the mucous membrane of the mouth  this phase may last for one or two days then rash starts to appear around the lips and on the hand palm and the foot sole also it may  appear on the cheeks and also on the buttock s but this is usually due to the diarrhea in infants

Treatment of HFMD

As all of the viral infections there are no specific treatment as we depend on the natural immune defense  and the  normal reactions of the body toward the disease but here in each stage of the disease we must give a symptomatic treatment so that we can prevent the complications

In the first two days we give analgesic and anti-pyretic drugs to treat the fever and the headache then in the second stage when sores start to appear in the mouth we can use soothing gel  also we can use soothing topical preparations  to treat the sores and the rashes on the skin

Some few cases may require to be hospitalized as they may suffer from more dangerous symptoms in which the fever may not be treatable with the normal anti-pyretics but this is not usually the case

The whole period of the disease is not more than one week and there is no special home remedy can be done except  for cold bath and administering warm drinks to sooth the sore throat and the lessons in the mouth.

Complications of HFMD

Some complications may occur but in very rare cases this may include viral meningitis which cause headache ,fever and stiff neck. In this case the patient must be hospitalized for a short time

Other complications are usually due to fever not due to direct viral infection when the fever is not treated well these complications include Encephalitis and acute flaccid paralysis.

Prevention of disease transmission among children

As this is the most common way of disease transmission so we can do many things to decrease the rate of its occurrence. First we must take care of the child hi gene and take care of the self care tools used  by the nurses and the teachers in the nurseries and the kindergartens.

Common diseases in women

 There are some diseases that occurs more often to women than men those are groups of diseases. We will talk about each disease and the ratio of its occurrence to women compared to its occurrence rate to men.

Gallstones: This is a disease where the gall bladder forms a stone and then got inflamed and so no further secretion of bile leading to pain and mull digestion this occurs three to four times more common in women than in men.

Migraine headache: This is a disease where the patient suffers from severe headache but only within one cerebral hemisphere causing the headache to be in one side of the head. This occurs three times more often to women.

Urinary tract infections: These are wide range of infections related to the urinary tract. These may affect the kidneys, the ureters , the bladder or even lower. These always affect women more than men

Hypertension: It often occurs more often to women due to kidney diseases. This type of hypertension is called secondary hypertension as it occur due to kidney diseases secondary to urinary tract infections.

Hypochromic anaemia: This is a disease where the count of red blood cells decreases than normal. Its more often in women due to their continuous loss of blood in each menstrual cycle and also due to periods of pregnancy and lactation where the many of the essential nutrients of the body are transferred to the fetus or the infant.

Autoimmune diseases: These include Multiple sclerosis, Sjogren’s syndrome and lupus. These are diseases where the immune systems attacks the person’s own body organs leading to their inflammation and destruction. These diseases often occur to women more often to men in the ratio of three to one. One more autoimmune disease that is more common and more known to us is Rheumatic arthritis where the immune cells attacks the bone tissues specially in the joints. This disease occurs for women in the ratio of two to one compared to men.

Osteoporosis: In this cases the bone density decreases severely causing the bone to be more susceptible to fractures. This topic concerns women’s health more than men’s health as it occurs to women mostly. This always occur after the age of menopause where the menstruation stops and the normal hormonal secretion stops. These hormones affect the rate of calcification of the bones and so by time the bone density is lowered leading to more susceptibility to fractures. In this cases an artificial hormonal therapy can compensate for the decrease levels and also good calcium intake is the best remedy for such cases , so we always advice women to maintain a normal supplement of dairy products from young ages.

Finally I would give an advice for women to maintain healthy life. First eat well but don’t eat much. Second try to have a continuous exercise regime. Third try to maintain a fixed time schedule for your meals and sleeping time.

Common diseases in human 2026

 This article is dedicated directly for every man, as I will talk about diseases that are most common to occur to men but the point I am so wandered about that the diseases which are more often affecting men are usually as a result of his own bad habits like snaking and drinking alcohols. This what made me highly interested in how these bad habits bring these diseases.

•Heart diseases: It include the arterial sclerosis, angina pectoris, cardiac arrhythmias and many other heart and circulatory conditions that are directly related to snaking and elevated cholesterol and low density lipids in the blood which may lead in severe cases to many complications like the heart muscle infarction and finally to congestive heart failure. What should be mentioned here is the essential hypertension where the blood pressure increase without any significant reason and thus leading to an overload on the heart that lead to further complications in the heart diseases. So we must have a controlled blood pressure by frequent checking to avoid elevated blood pressure for a long time.

•Lower respiratory tract infections: The lungs being always filled with smoke leading to its precipitation on the alveolar walls harming them . so they are more susceptible to infections leading to lesson formation which is so hard to be treated with normal drugs and may require surgical operations to remove. Finally this may lead to lung cancer.

•Liver diseases: These always occurs to men more often than women because men drink alcohols more than women .Alcohol beverages induce fatty liver due to the high load of alcohol metabolism inside the liver that then lead to destruction of the liver cells finally leading to liver cirrhosis and may lead to liver cancer.

•Prostate cancer: In fact this is the only disease more common to occur in men that is not due to certain bad habit like snaking or alcohol drinking. Prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system. Generally in old aged men, over 40 the prostate starts to exhibit larger size in a case called prostate hyperplasia  which in many cases lead finally to prostate cancer where the prostate cells divide in very high and uncontrolled rate without doing its proper function. On these cases usually surgical excision must be done to remove the prostate at all.

Finally I would give an advice for men to maintain normal healthy lives away from the diseases. First, keep away from snaking the most destructive habit ever seen which lead to severe damage to the man’s life. Second, keep away from drinking the alcoholic beverages which are also so bad causing a direct and severe damage to the liver. Third, you have to maintain normal lifestyle including having good meals containing all the supplements you need in fixed times daily also sleeping the appropriate time needed by your body. Finally you must have a constant schedule for daily exercises even walking to make your circulation better and maintain better body health.

What is Lipoma?

 They are usually a bengin tumors composed of adipose tissue usually occurring in ages between 40 and 60. About one percent of the human beings have lipomas of any type. Its usually appearing as subcutaneous mass. Its soft , movable and in most cases it is painless. It may then be transformed ti malignant type tumors, but there is no a proven evidence for that yet.

Types of Lipomas

• Adenolipoma: this is the type of adipose tissue tumor that occur in the sweat glands.

• Angiolipoleiomyomas: these are subcutaneous tumors composed of blood vessels, fat, muscle cells and connective tissue.

• Angiolipomas: these are the painful type of subcutaneous lipomas.

• Superficial subcutaneous lipomas: this is the most common type of subcutaneous adipose tumors that occur just below the skin surface and it may occur in different parts of the body.

• Other types which occur rarely are Chondroid lipomas, Corpus callosum lipoma, Hibernomas, Intradermal spindle cell lipomas and neural fibrolipomas. We will not deal in details of types because they occur rarely.

Causes of Lipoma

There are two main causes shown to be in relation with the development of lipoma. First the family history, some late researches showed that there is a hereditary genes that may make people more susceptible to develop lipoma than others. Second there is some theories that had proven that some lipomas develop after injuries but this is not well proven till now.

Treatment of Lipomas

As we said before that most of lipomas are not painful and are small sized so treatment is not important in all cases., but there are some cases where the lipoma become painful or it become of large size preventing normal body movement or if it is most be removed for cosmotic reasons, Finally surgical excision is a must when there are signs of transformation to other malignant types are seen like liposarcomas or other malignant tumors.

Usually excision occurs by minor surgical operations in most cases using local anesthetics. New techniques include liposuction but only with those soft lipomas lacking excessive connective tissues. Finally lipomas can be treated by local injection of compounds that stimulate lipolysis.

Prognosis of lipomas

Usually lipomas don’t lead to more complications except in rare cases, so the patient that develop lipoma can maintain a normal life without suffering even if not treated at all .As we said most cases of lipomas are painless, small sized and so it is of no harm. Something to take into consideration that if it become larger in size in a short period of time of time, clinical examination must be done immediately as we still have the fear of transformation from the benign type lipomas to the most dangerous and life threatening malignant type liposarcomas.

In this cases direct surgical excision must be done to remove the whole tumor as early as possible then histopathological examination must be done to determine it’s type and if it is proven to be malignant special post operative medications must be administered to avoid further metastasis allover the body.

Prostate cancer

 This is s type of cancer that occurs in the prostate gland, which is a gland in the male reproductive system responsible for the semen fluid production. Cancer occurs when cells in certain body organ or tissue starts to divide in an uncontrolled rate leading to formation of a tumor which then displaces the normal cells with atypical nonfunctioning cells leading to loss of organ functionality and may be transferred to other body organs on a process called metastasis.

Signs and symptoms of prostate cancer

They are similar to the symptoms of benign prostate hyperplasia. Those symptoms include increased frequency of urination, urination during night, the patient being unable to maintain a steady urination stream and also painful urination. These urinary symptoms occur in prostate cancer as the prostate gland is present around the prostatic urethra and its enlargement either due to benign prostate hyperplasia or due to prostate cancer leads to these urinary changes. Also sexual symptoms are present as the prostate is responsible for seminal fluid production; these symptoms include incomplete penile erection and fast painful ejaculation.

Risk factors

As all of the other cancer types there is no a quiet evidence for its causes, but there are many risk factors that are proven to be in a relation with prostate cancer. The first is genetic factor. Many researched had shown that if there is family history of prostate cancer so members of this family are more likely to have prostate cancer. The second is dietary factor there is some evidence that taking excessive multivitamins and folic acid made people more susceptible to prostate cancer. Other risk factors include sexual factors; in this issue it is evident that people who had many sexual partners and started to have sex in young ages are more likely to develop prostate cancer.

Diagnosis of prostate cancer

Signs and symptoms are not enough to ensure that there is prostate cancer as they are common with other prostate inflammation conditions. So the main diagnosing tool that can be used to diagnose prostate cancer is taking a prostate biopsy. Other imaging techniques may be useful before biopsy to have an initial determination of the disease.

Treatment of prostate cancer

In many cases the disease is asymptomatic and so treatment is not necessary. I mean that there is no need for treatment for old patients who are not expected to live until the symptoms appear. This is always the case of low grades slow growing prostate tumors, but if the patient is of young age and have painful and uncomfortable symptoms therapy must be done. The first trend is to use high energy radiation techniques to stop the growth and the division of tumor cells, but if this is not efficient and the tumor is of high grade surgery must be done. This surgical operation is called radical prostatectomy where the gland is completely removed.

Finally as many other types of cancers we still can’t speak precisely in the causes or even the treatment techniques, because till now there is no complete curing therapy to treat cancer.

Breast Cancer

 Breast cancer accounts for about 23% of the whole cancer cases on the world. It can occur both to men and women but it occurs hundred times more often in women than in men. It accounts for about half a million deaths every year.

Breast cancer is the type of cancer that arises either from the ducts or the lobules of the mammalian breasts so it’s differentiated to ductal carcinoma and lobular carcinoma according to its origin.

Symptoms and Signs

The most obvious sign that about 80% of the breast cancer cases discover the disease with is a lump or hardened area of the breast the feels stiffer and harder than the surrounding soft tissues either in the breast or in the armpits. Some other signs indicate that there is a breast cancer. These are a change in the nipple size or shape, a discharge from the nipple, one breast become larger or a rash occurring in the areas surrounding the nipples. These are all indicative signs of a breast cancer but for sure further investigation and clinical examination to ensure that this is a case of breast cancer.

Risk Factors

1)      Lifestyle: such as smoking tobacco which increases the rate of breast cancer, as smoking begins earlier, risk becomes higher, heavy and long term smokers have risk 35% - 50% more than others, physical activity may decrease the rate of cases by 10%.

There is probably a relationship between breast feeding and breast cancer, and also diet plays an important role; increased fat diet, alcohols, obesity and iodine deficiency may increase the risk of breast cancer.

2)      Genetic factor:  in about 5% of cases a genetic factor leads to breast-ovarian cancer syndrome, mostly in those carrying BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutated genes.

3)      Medical conditions: breast cancer may be related to other medical conditions such as atypical hyperplasia or fibrocystic breast changes.

Pathphysiology

Normal cells divide as required then they stop dividing, Cancer cells are the cells that lose the ability to stop dividing in the required time, this occurs due to the exposure of a genetically susceptible person to an external environmental factor.

Classification:

Breast cancers can classified in many ways, here is a categorization according to histopathology, grade and stage.

According to histopathology:

Breast cancers are classified into ductal or lobular carcinoma, invasive carcinomas spread from the initial tissues and are not confined.

According to grade:

Normal breast cells are differentiated so that to do their function in a proper way, cancerous cells lose their differentiation, cells start to divide and division is uncontrolled, cells are classified into (low grade) which is well differentiated and (intermediate grade) which is moderately differentiated and (high grade) which is poorly differentiated and don’t resemble the structure of the normal breast cells at all.

According to stage:

The stage of breast cancer is determined by the TNM system, which depends on (T) the size of the tumor, (N) the tumor reaches the lymph nodes or not and (M) which shows if the tumor develops metastasis or not.

Tuberculosis T.B

 It is an infectious disease caused by one or more strain of mycobacteria, mainly mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis infects the lungs causing many respiratory symptoms and then it causes other systemic symptoms all over the body that we will discuss later in the symptoms sections. Most of the infections are asymptomatic while only one tenth of which is transformed to active infection which is mostly lethal if not treated properly.

Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms are classified into respiratory symptoms, where the patient suffers from severe cough, high rate of sputum production, appearance of blood in sputum and chest pain. If it invades the pulmonary artery then excessive bleeding may occur. Other symptoms are systemic extra pulmonary symptoms including fever, excessive sweating at night and weight loss. All these signs and symptoms mentioned is indicative and characteristic for tuberculosis.

Causes

It is a disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis which is an aerobic immobile bacillus. It is transmitted when person become in contact with saliva, sputum of an infected person, or even upon breathing air near the patient who is all the time coughing and sneezing.

Risk factors

Factors that make someone more susceptible to the infection of tuberculosis include HIV which decreases the overall immunity of the person leading to be infected easily. Other highly common risk factors include bad health care, overcrowding and malnutrition so that this disease is called the disease of poverty as it is usually highly spread in poor countries where there is no good health care providers and there are many bad habits concerning hygiene  and health care.  Smoking is a common risk factor.  Also people with diseases like diabetes mellitus and chronic pulmonary infections are more susceptible to tuberculosis.

Diagnosis

Depending only on the characteristic signs and symptoms is not enough. Chest x-ray showing numerous dark lesions and doing sputum cultures are the first steps for evaluation of the disease. Sputum and blood cultures are always so difficult to obtain result from due to the slow growth rate of the bacillus that may delay the culture to two to four weeks.

Prevention

This is mainly done by vaccination of infants and using enhancing doses of the vaccine in young ages. The most commonly used vaccine is bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine. It prevent the direct infection in children but the immunity induced by this vaccine is lost after about 10 years so an enhancing dose must be administered.

Treatment

This infectious disease can’t be easily treated due to the high resistant membrane the bacillus owns and so it is so difficult to penetrate this membrane with the antibiotics usually used. The most commonly used effective antibiotics used are rifampicin and isoniazid. Usually a combination of two antibiotics is used to prevent the development of resistant strains of the bacteria. The treatment course may last for several months through which administration of the antibiotic combination is administered and the prognosis is observed.

Finally I would like to say that tuberculosis nowadays is not a disease of high concern except in poor and low income countries, but even these have overcame the problem by proper vaccination and good health advice announcements on the media and the press.

Types of toxicological studies

 There are two types i.e.

      1-      Short term/acute toxicological studies

      2-      Long term toxicological studies

We also study sub-acute/ sub chronic studies, chronic studies.

      1-      Short term/acute toxicological studies:

Administer drug for short period of time, for one day or multiple dose

Observation:

Observe given animal for 30 days and not any toxicological effects of drug on animal. Two type of observation are carried out

      A-    Behavioural changes:

It include sleeping pattern, eating habits, dinking, head tail and other movements.

      B-    Biochemical changes:

Collect urine, blood, feces, or any other body secretion and note any change in its characteristics. If there is any color change in body secretion it means drug shows short term/acute toxicity.

      2-      Sub-acute/Sub chronic studies:

Sometime acute toxicity is note observe with drugs so we perform sub-acute/sub chronic studies. In this case administer the drug for two week OD or at suitable intervals and then observe the effects after 2 weeks. Side effects are observed during this period and after this period.

Estimation of drug dose:

After observation of

·         P.k and P.D of drug

·         Side effects of drug

Example:

If drug shows side effect at 10 mg then clinical trials studies are started with 1/10 mg of initial dose.

Chronic studies:

These studies are performed with those drugs which are administered of prolong period of time. I.e. for every drug molecule duration of use is different e.g.

·         Analgesics are taken for 1-2 days.

·         Antibiotics are prescribed for longer period of time e.g. 5, 7 or 10 days.

·         Chronic studies are performed for these types of drug. Administer dose regularly for 90-180 days then observe the effects.

      3-      Long term studies:

These types of toxicological studies are performed for those type of drug which are used for chronic ailments e.g. blood pressure, diabetes, arthritis.

Administer the drug for the period of 1 year after this observe the side effect and toxic effect produce in long term studies further following studies are performed e.g. carcinogenic studies, reproductive studies, genotoxic studies.

Carcinogenic studies:

These are long term studies in which drugs areadministered for 18-24 months and then after this time animal is killed and observe various organ for the tumor/malignancy.

Reproductive studies:

These are also type of long term studies. In this after the administration of drug, overall behavior of parents is observed.

Observe mating effects of parents and observe, what is effect of new drug molecule on the offspring embryo and fetus?

Genotoxic studies:

Salmonella typhaemurium specie of bacteria is used to study genotoxicity. A new drug molecule is administered to bacteria and then genetic changes are observed in bacteria.

We see,

·         New drug molecule to cure mutation or not?

·         Drug molecule cause any change in genetic sequence/genetic make-up or not?

Note:

         Short term studies are done before INDA submission.

         Long term studies are carried out along with clinical trials. 

How are toxicology studies conducted

 The branch of pharmacology that deals with the toxic and side effects of new drug molecule is called toxicology. It is also called as preclinical drug safety evaluation. In this study we determine the toxicology of new drug molecule.

If toxicological studies of new drug molecule are not performed then investigational new drug application (INDA) cannot be submitted.

Objectives:

Following are objectives of toxicological studies

      A.    Acute/short term effects

      B.     Long term effects

      C.     Organ specificity

      D.    To determine the site at which toxicity is produce

      E.     Degree of toxicity            

      F.      Relationship between dose and toxic dose

      G.    Effect of drug on gender

      H.    Effect of new drug on reproductive system

      I.       Carcinogenic effect of drug

      J.       Genotoxic effect of drug

      A-    Acute and short term effect:

                                                            To determine acute/short term effects of new drug molecule e.g. when new molecule enter in the body of human/ animal then what are various acute effect produce by a new drug molecule. E.g. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea etc.

      B-    Long term effect:

To, determine long term effect of a new drug molecule.I.e. when drug is administered to body to which organ is produce damage?E.g. cardio-toxic drug nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic.

Examples:

·         Aminoglycosides cause damage to ear and kidney.

·         Paracetamol cause damage to liver.

·         Some drugs also cause retinopathy.

      C-    Organ specificity:

To, determine the organ specificity of new drug molecule. I.e. in which organ drug is maximally absorbed o maximum concentration of drug is achieve in what organ? Because the organ having maximum concentration of drug also toxicological profile of that organ is maximum I.e. drug produce more side effect of this organ. After drug absorption what is Vd of particular organ because increase in Vd of organ increase the toxicity of drug of that organ.

       D-    To determine site at which toxicity is produce:

Where particular toxicity take place?

Toxicity produces by which mechanism?

Example:

·         If there is GIT drug then it produces side effects on GIT.

·         How this drug cause side effect? On which muscle enzyme is act it may be by inhibiting

·         GIT enzyme by muscle contraction.

Also we determine the exact site on which drug act because GIT is a very long portion. We determine that drug act on small intestine or large intestine or colon to produce side effect.

      E-    Degree of toxicity:

Also we determine the degree of toxicity of new drug molecule, whether it is

·         Acute

·         Chronic

·         Mild

·         Moderate

·         Sever

·         Life threatening

       F-     Relationship between dose and toxic dose:

Also we determine the relation between dose and toxic dose of new drug molecule.

Example: Some drug which have very broad therapeutic index side effect does not appear at high doses. Those drugs which have narrow therapeutic index cause side effect even at low doses.

      G-    Effect of drug on gender:

We also determine the effect of new drug molecule on gender whether it shows toxic effects are more in male female, neonates or geriatrics.

Example:

Cimetidine cause gynecomestia in male but has less effect in females. May be some drugs show effect in one gender but not in other. 

      H-    Effect of new drug on reproductive system:

We also determine the toxic effect of new drug molecule on the reproductive system

      I-       Carcinogenic effect of drug:

To know whether new drug molecule is carcinogenic or not or induce mutation or disturb the gene sequence?

      J-      Genotoxic effect of drug

 What is the effect of new drug molecule on gene sequence or can cause mutation or not?

Functions of Mouth and Teeth

 Whеn wе ѕtаrt еаting, food еntеrѕ оur mоuth аnd the рrосеѕѕ оf digеѕtiоn starts in оur mоuth. Wе ѕtаrt сhеwing thе food. Fооd is crushed and grоund during thе mаѕtiсаtiоn оr chewing process. Sаlivаrу glаndѕ start ѕесrеting and lubriсаtеѕ thе food thаt wе сhеw. Thе food is рuѕhеd аrоund bу thе tоnguе аnd within a minutе or ѕо, fооd bесоmеѕ сruѕhеd, grоund, ѕоft аnd mоiѕt mass, whiсh iѕ саllеd bоluѕ. Eасh bоluѕ is swallowed through thе thrоаt, whiсh is аlѕо tесhniсаllу rеfеrrеd as thе рhаrуnx. Swallowed bоluѕ iѕ passed on into thе esophagus.

We have four diffеrеnt types оf tееth, each hаving a different rоlе. Pointed саninеѕ аrе dеѕignеd fоr tearing. At the frоnt аrе chisel shaped inсiѕоrѕ with sharp edges for cutting purposes. The premolars and mоlаrѕ are for сruѕhing and grinding. Prеmоlаrѕ have twо ridgеѕ on the tор but mоlаrѕ аrе flаttеr compared tо thе рrеmоlаrѕ. Mоlаrѕ are thе lаrgеѕt аnd ѕtrоngеѕt оf аll tееth.

Thе роrtiоn оf teeth аbоvе the gum iѕ саllеd thе сrоwn and thе раrt whiсh is еmbеddеd in the gum оr the jаwbоnеѕ is called the rооt of thе tееth. Thе аrеа between thе two, nеаr thе gum surface iѕ саllеd thе nесk. Thе tесhniсаl nаmе fоr gum iѕ gingivа. Outer lауеr оf thе crown iѕ made of a tough bоnе-likе material called enamel. Enamel iѕ thе hardest substance in the body. If bоdу happens tо burn, what is lеft iѕ teeth. That iѕ the rеаѕоn sometimes idеntifiсаtiоn iѕ mаdе thrоugh dental rесоrdѕ. Bеnеаth thе enamel liеѕ ѕоftеr but still vеrу ѕtrоng tiѕѕuе called thе dеntin. It iѕ mаinlу ѕhосk-аbѕоrbing. Dеntin covers thе whоlе tееth, inсluding сrоwn, thе root аnd thе nесk. In the center оf tееth liеѕ thе ѕоft dental pulp, which has blооd vеѕѕеlѕ аnd nerves. Below gum, аnоthеr bone-like hard tiѕѕuе thе cementine, соvеrѕ thе dеntin. Pеriоdоntаl ligаmеnt tissues under thе gum secure tееth in thе jаwbоnе.

Tееth саn nоt crush food рrореrlу withоut support frоm thе tоnguе. Trу рulling thе tоnguе in and сhеw withоut thе tоnguе, уоu will ѕооn rеаlizе thе importance оf the tоnguе in chewing. It kеерѕ pushing food оut towards thе teeth. Thrее pairs оf ѕаlivаrу glаndѕ produce ѕаlivа in the mоuth. Parotid glаnd is in frоnt оf аnd juѕt below each еаr. Thе ѕubmаndibulаr glаndѕ are оn thе innеr ѕidе оf thе lоwеr jаwbоnеѕ and thе ѕublinguаl glands аrе оn thе floor оf thе mouth bеlоw thе tоnguе. Saliva iѕ mоѕtlу wаtеr (99.5%), but it hаѕ ѕоmе imроrtаnt еnzуmеѕ thаt start thе digеѕtiоn рrосеѕѕ in thе mоuth. Amylase bеginѕ thе breakdown оf ѕtаrсhеѕ аnd ѕаlivаrу liраѕе bеginѕ thе digеѕtiоn of fаtѕ. This iѕ оnе of thе reasons, сhеwing fооd thoroughly is essential аѕ it will jump-start thе digеѕtiоn рrосеѕѕ. Sаlivа аlѕо hаѕ diѕinfесtаnt and antibacterial сhеmiсаlѕ. Saliva nоt only hеlрѕ mоiѕtеn food, but it аlѕо kеерѕ the muсоuѕ membrane оf mouth mоiѕt bеtwееn реriоdѕ оf еаting.

Onсе thе fооd hаѕ been сhеwеd рrореrlу аnd hаѕ bееn moistened by saliva, it iѕ in the bоluѕ form аnd rеаdу tо be pushed bу thе rеѕt оf thе tongue to thе bасk of thе mouth. Thiѕ iѕ thе beginning оf thе vоluntаrу рrосеѕѕ оf swallowing. Swallowing soft аnd mоiѕt bolus is easy but tо swallow a ѕоlid itеm ѕuсh аѕ mеdiсinе pill оr tablet without сhеwing is hаrd аnd dеmаndѕ focus. Liԛuid iѕ not сhеwеd and iѕ gulреd down dirесtlу right аftеr it is рut into thе mоuth, whiсh iѕ whу it iѕ easier tо ѕwаllоw pills with water. Onсе bоluѕ iѕ рuѕhеd dоwn оn thе bасk оf thе mоuth, automatic rеflеxеѕ take оvеr the later ѕtаgеѕ оf swallowing, аѕ thе muѕсlеѕ оf thrоаt соntrасt аnd push thе bоluѕ furthеr bасk аnd dоwn, аnd squeeze bolus intо thе tор оf thе esophagus. A саrtilаgе flар knоwn аѕ the ерiglоttiѕ prevents fооd from gоing dоwn the 'wrоng way' intо thе lаrуnx аnd thе trachea аnd thus рrеvеntѕ роѕѕiblе сhоking.

Thе throat is a duаl рurроѕе раѕѕаgеwау. It lеtѕ brеаthing air pass thrоugh as wеll аѕ fооd, drink and ѕаlivа whilе еаting. Muscles оf thе thrоаt (pharynx), tоnguе, mouth, lаrуnx аnd uрреr еѕорhаguѕ run undеr nerve ѕignаlѕ from brаin tо рrеvеnt fооd frоm еntеring thе windpipe оr trасhеа. Thе саrtilаgе flар оf ерiglоttiѕ iѕ crucial in covering larynx mouth whеn fооd оr drink is going down аlоng thе thrоаt. Complex muѕсlе movement оf swallowing iѕ a voluntary reflex triggеrеd by the contact оf ѕоlid mаttеr to thе ѕеnѕоrѕ at the back оf thе mоuth. If fооd iѕ ассidеntаllу inhaled, thе irritаtiоn of thе windрiре triggеrѕ соughing reflex tо еxреl inhаlеd раrtiсlеѕ and рrеvеnt сhоking.Thе nеxt ѕtаgе of the digеѕtivе trасt iѕ esophagus, through which bоluѕ еntеrѕ thе ѕtоmасh. 

Fatigue Myths and Facts

 Whаt creates thе burning ѕеnѕаtiоn оn thе last couple оf repetitions whilе lifting weights; аnd whу dоеѕ оnе'ѕ bоdу get tired while cresting a ѕtеер hill?

Thе body muѕt retrieve energy ѕуѕtеmѕ аlѕо known as thе glусоlуtiс раthwау in оrdеr to ѕuррlу the muѕсlеѕ with fuеl оr thе glусоgеn and gluсоѕе nесеѕѕаrу tо соntinuе thе соntrасtilе рrореrtiеѕ whilе performing a high intеnѕitу асtivitу. Lасtаtе is a bу-рrоduсt оf lасtiс асid as wоrklоаd еxсееdѕ oxidation сараbilitiеѕ thеn lactate ассumulаtеѕ in the muѕсlе рlаѕmа.

For every lасtаtе mоlесulе a hуdrоgеn iоn iѕ рrоduсеd. If oxidation fоr fuеling рurроѕеѕ bесоmеѕ rеѕtriсtеd due tо anaerobic асtivitу then hуdrоgеn iоnѕ inсrеаѕе. Thе high lеvеlѕ оf hуdrоgеn ions create аn асidiс environment within thе muscle ѕуѕtеm.

A nоrmаl muscle pH lеvеl iѕ аbоut 7.1 whеn thе bоdу ѕwitсhеѕ tо anaerobic mесhаniѕmѕ the muѕсlе рH сhаngеѕ tо a рH lеvеl оf аррrоximаtеlу 6.5. Thе ѕtаtе оf асidоѕiѕ ѕtimulаtеѕ nerve rесерtоrѕ in thе muscles creating thе perception оf раin and саuѕing muѕсlе fаtiguе.

There hаvе also bееn studies indiсаting high potassium ассumulаtiоn may also рlау a rоlе in muѕсlе fаtiguе.

Athlеtеѕ саn inсrеаѕе lасtаtе thrеѕhоldѕ in whiсh uрtаkе mechanisms of lасtаtе become more еffiсiеnt. Training ѕресifiсаllу аt high intensity interval lеvеlѕ аnd аt ѕub lасtаtе thrеѕhоldѕ tеасhеѕ the exercise рhуѕiоlоgiсаl processes tо clear lactate mоrе effectively reducing inсrеаѕеѕ in hуdrоgеn ions аnd роtаѕѕium.

In case уоu tоо fееl fаtiguеd реrhарѕ a consoling thоught iѕ to know that уоu аrе nоt аlоnе. It iѕ еѕtimаtеd thаt 20% оf Amеriсаnѕ ѕuffеr frоm this condition, whiсh intеrfеrе with thеir nоrmаl living. While рhуѕiсаl саuѕеѕ contribute to 20 to 60% of the саѕеѕ, emotional causes make uр fоr 40 to 80%. Thе iѕѕuе here iѕ hоw to diagnose fаtiguе cause, and whеthеr it dеmаndѕ a соnѕultаtiоn with thе dосtоr.

If уоu аrе lооking for a single factor аѕ a fаtiguе саuѕе, уоu might be in for a ѕurрriѕе, as thеrе are plenty оf inter-related fасtоrѕ whiсh саn саuѕе fatigue. However соmmоn the соnditiоn may be, it is реrhарѕ оnе of thе toughest to dеfinе, and most оf the time, it iѕ a symptom оf ѕеvеrаl undеrlуing conditions. Lеt us lооk аt ѕоmе оf thе common fatigue causes:

·         Slеер diѕturbаnсеѕ

·         Not adequate sleep

·         Tоо muсh sleep

·         Slеер арnеа

·         Chаngе in ѕlеерing timingѕ(night ѕhift, сhаnging shifts, etc)

·         Alcohol

·         Obesity

·         Vitаmin dеfiсiеnсу оr inѕuffiсiеnt calorie соnѕumрtiоn

Of соurѕе thе liѕt of fatigue causes саn gо оn еndlеѕѕlу. If уоu are ѕuffеring frоm ѕlеер арnеа, уоu nоw know that thiѕ ѕinglе fatigue саuѕе iѕ responsible fоr уоur present соnditiоn оf health. Hоwеvеr, it has been ѕееn thаt hеаlthу wеight loss, оftеn rеѕultѕ in a chain reaction where you саn witnеѕѕ several imрrоvеmеntѕ: rеduсtiоn of weight lеаding to bеttеr quаlitу оf restful ѕlеер lеаding tо rеduсеd fatigue.

If you are ѕuffеring frоm bоth fatigue and ѕlеер apnea, аnd trуing tо find thе precise fatigue cause аѕ wеll аѕ a relation bеtwееn thе two conditions, it might mаkе mоrе ѕеnѕе if you knеw mоrе аbоut the five lеvеlѕ оf sleep. The dеереѕt lеvеl is called the REM оr Rарid Eуе Mоvеmеnt, which wе оftеn call the drеаm ѕlеер lеvеl. Uѕuаllу реорlе ѕреnd оnlу a quarter оf thеir ѕlеерing timе аt lеvеl 5, which kеерѕ thеm еnеrgеtiс аnd refreshed.

Hоwеvеr, whеn уоu аrе a victim оf ѕlеер арnеа, chances аrе thаt уоu choke in уоur ѕlеер fоr very ѕhоrt spans of timе (10 to 30 ѕесоndѕ at a timе). During this timе, thе brаin goes thrоugh a рhаѕе оf rеduсеd оxуgеn and brings уоu tо lоwеr lеvеlѕ оf ѕlеер. Whеn ѕuсh ерiѕоdеѕ tаkе рlасе mоrе thаn 6 timеѕ in аn hour, уоu аrе not only dерrivеd of any rеѕtful sleep but wоuld оbviоuѕlу wake uр tirеd аnd liѕtlеѕѕ. Bесаuѕе оf thiѕ diѕturbеd sleeping pattern, you wоuld соntinuе tо fееl tirеd аnd wеаrу for thе rеѕt оf the dау. Hopefully уоu hаvе now fоund the fаtiguе cause аnd thе сlоѕе rеlаtiоnѕhiр bеtwееn fаtiguе аnd sleep арnеа. 

Steps of drug design and development

 1-      Discovery Step:

It is consisting on the choice of therapeutic target and the identification and production of new active substance interacting with selected target. Such compound usually called as lead and originates from synthetic, organic, natural, semi synthetic or biotechnology process.

2-      Optimization Step:
It deals with the improvement of an active compound this optimization process increase the potency, selectivity and decrease in toxicity. IT characteristics are the establishment of structurally active relationship. Ideally based on understanding of the molecular mode of action.

3-      Development Step:

Its purpose in the continuation of the improvement of pharmacokinetic properties and the fine turning of pharmaceutics properties of active substance to make them suitable for clinical use. It can consist in preparation of better absorb compound of sustain release preparation and all water soluble derivatives or is the elimination of properties relating to the patient compliance e.g. irritation, painful injection, undesirable organoleptic properties.